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by Ken Mierke
Fitness Concepts

While the fastest cyclists and triathletes certainly will never win a bodybuilding contest, a well thought out strength training program will absolutely improve performance.  Given the duration of most races, the athletes we coach will almost always be peripherally limited.  Their performances will be limited by the muscles of the extremities, not the cardiovascular system.  A fit athlete has an extraordinarily strong cardiovascular system, but the winner is the athlete whose muscles hold up best to the demands of racing.
 
This article will deal specifically with weight training to increase strength in the prime movers in swimming, cycling, and running.  Core strengthening and strength transfer training are extremely important as well, but are separate topics to be covered in different articles.
 
Adaptations to Strength Training

Strength training stimulates different adaptations, seemingly more specific to the short duration, high intensity efforts (Blazevich, 2002).  Strength training does not usually change aerobic capacity significantly and induces relatively small increase in oxidative enzymes (Nelson, 1990).  It does cause muscle hypertrophy, which aerobic training does not.  Strength training does not stimulate growth of capillaries, but since it does increase the cross section of a muscle, it decreases capillary density.  Strength training does not increase fat utilization or change the rate of carbohydrate utilization (Tanaka, 1998).  Strength training may reduce mitochondrial density in muscles. (Nelson, 1990).  Strength training develops significant improvements in max torque at each angular velocity (Dudley, 1985).  

How Will Strength Training Affect Primary Sport Workouts?

Research demonstrated that adding strength training to endurance training programs could improve endurance performance.  The addition of endurance training and the associated central and peripheral adaptations that occur are not negatively influenced by additional strength training (Bell, 1998).  The addition of endurance training and the associated central and peripheral adaptations that occur are not negatively influenced by additional strength training (Bell, 1998).  The accumulation of strength may reflect learning specific activation and motor unit recruitment patterns rather than significant intramuscular biochemical alterations, although the possibility of an increased contractile protein per cross-sectional area cannot be ruled out (Hickson, 1988).  With greater strength a longer workload could be sustained on the cycle and thereby provided a stronger stimulus for enzymatic reactions to transcribe muscle proteins (Petrofsky, 2003)

           Obviously strength training added on top of a high volume, high intensity training program could lead to overtraining.  This is a major reason why keeping primary-sport workouts low intensity during the base periods is so critical.  Balancing weight training volume and intensity and working it in with primary-sport workouts in a weekly pattern are critical.
 
Little or No Change in Aerobic Capacity

            Most research demonstrated that adding strength training to an endurance training regimen did not change aerobic capacity (VO2 max), especially for well trained athletes.  Even those studies that did show increased VO2 max, the increase was not nearly equal to the increase in performance resulting from strength training.  The benefits of strength training do not result from increasing the athlete‚s ability to sustain high levels of aerobic energy expenditure.
 
Improved Movement Economy

Interestingly, the greatest benefit of strength training for cycling and triathlon running is improved economy.  Strong cyclists and triathletes can ride and run fast using less energy than athletes with less strength.  So it isn‚t that strength training enables them to sustain a higher workload, but that strength training enables them to go fast with a reduced workload.
 
The most economical cyclist I ever tested was a national champion powerlifter during college and played linebacker in the NFL before turning to endurance sport.  He did train hard and he was incredibly fit, but he could produce incredible wattage with moderately high energy expenditure.

Stronger athletes require less energy to maintain a certain pace.  In many sports movements, optimal technique requires strength.  For example, a runner‚s quadriceps contract at foot-strike to support bodyweight.  Strong runners‚ are able to catch bodyweight at foot-strike with minimal vertical drop, while weaker runners tend to „sink in‰ and the center of body mass lowers.  This requires the runner to expend energy to raise the body‚s center of mass.  Similarly, aspects of swimming and cycling technique require significant strength to perform economically.
 
While every endurance athlete trains to maximize the level of energy expenditure they can sustain for race duration, reducing the energy cost of moving at race pace, improving economy, may play an as great or greater role in improving performance.  
            
Paavolainen, (1999) showed that strength training improved the 5K running time in well-trained endurance athletes without changing their VO2 max, by improving running economy and muscle power.  Nine weeks of explosive resistance training improved running economy by 8.1% and this resulted in an improvement in 5km running time with no increase in V02max.
 
Reduced or Delayed Recruitment of Fast Twitch (type II) Muscle Fibers
           
Another primary reason for improved performance resulting from adding strength training to an endurance training program is reduced recruitment of fast twitch muscle fibers at a given sub-maximal intensity (Hickson, 1988).  With stronger slow twitch (type I) muscle fibers, greater intensity will be required for the activation of the fast twitch (type II) muscle fibers.  Fast twitch fiber recruitment causes fatigue for several reasons.  First, fast twitch fibers require more ATP to produce a given level of work.  Second, slow twitch fibers do not produce acid at the same rate as fast twitch fibers, therefore decreased activation of the fast twitch fibers delays fatigue.  Slow twitch fibers have a number of properties that make them more suitable for endurance performance.  Slow twitch fibers do not produce lactic acid at a rate that will produce accumulation, and they are able to use free fatty acids as substrates and are therefore less likely to glycogen deplete.  Slow twitch fibers also require less energy than fast twitch fibers do to produce work through contraction (Bárány, 1967).
 
Cyclists who have strengthened their slow twitch muscle fibers will have better power reserve late in races.  When needed, the fast twitch muscle fibers will be fresher because they have been used less.  Triathletes will have better speed and endurance because they will be able to go faster without using the fast twitch fibers.
 
Reduced Injury Risk

Injuries are an ever-present training risk.  Cyclists may complete over six million pedal strokes in a full season of training and racing.  Running is an extremely high-impact activity and every runner will be injured at some point in their career.  Peak performances almost always come after long periods of consistent, uninterrupted training.  Beyond correcting technique and developing training schedules that balance volume, intensity, and recovery, strength training is an athlete‚s best defense against injury.  Strength training increases the strength of all of the connective tissues as well as the muscles.  Improved strength decreases both the frequency and severity of injuries for many endurance athletes, enabling greater training volume and intensity in the athlete‚s primary sport (Henriksson, 1999).  One common denominator of almost all great endurance performances is a long period of relatively uninterrupted training.
 
Athletes who perform serious strength training in the off-season also recover faster from workouts.  A strong runner will suffer less micro-trauma ˆ tiny tears in the muscles that cause soreness.  Anything that speeds recovery and allows more training volume and intensity without overtraining will improve performance.
 
Implementing Strength Training for Cycling and Triathlon

Remember that a cyclist or triathlete is in the weight room to build strength.  Triathletes are not interested in getting bulky muscles ˆ that would only slow them down.  Triathletes are also not going to build endurance in the weight room.  A very long weight training set is two minutes in duration, about as long as a fast runner will spend doing a half-mile run on the track.  On just a two hour bike ride at 90 rpm, a triathlete‚s legs perform 10,800 repetitions.  Which is going to increase endurance better, that or a two-minute weight training set?  Stronger muscles will have better endurance, but it is the strength developed in the weight room that increases performance, not endurance from high repetition sets.  
 
Prioritize Intensity Over Volume

Strength training workouts should be short duration and high intensity, using a minimum number of sets and relatively heavy weights.  The athletes I coach, including world ranked professionals, spend no more than thirty to forty minutes in the weight room two to three times per week.  I often recommend a single very hard set for each muscle group.  Increasing strength is accomplished with high intensity workouts.  Increasing volume beyond a single maximal-effort set delays recovery significantly without modest additional return.  Cyclists and triathletes, who need to swim, bike, run, and lift weights, should get in the weight room, work their tails off for a short time, and go home.  I have found that this method develops strength very effectively and leaves time and energy for other workouts.  Strength training is a very important supplement for a triathlete, but it should always remain a supplement and not dramatically interfere with the primary workouts.
 
Use Relatively Heavy Weights

To build strength, cyclists and triathletes need to use relatively heavy weights.  Increasing strength requires stimulating muscle fibers that are not used in your normal workouts.  Weight training with light to moderate resistance is not effective.  Beginning a strength training program using light weights and building to moderate weights is important initially, but once the tissues have adapted to the demands of strength training use relatively heavy weights.
 
High intensity strength training produces greater strength increase in the type 1, slow twitch, muscle fibers (Østerås, et al., 2002).  Using relatively heavy weights may provide greater neural adaptations in addition to hypertrophy.
 
A weight training set should end because the muscle will no longer, even with 100% effort by the athlete, create the force necessary to lift the weight.  This should occur before lactic acid builds up in the muscles causing incredible pain.  Weight training workouts do require great effort and will cause some pain, but it should be the effort of lifting heavy weights, not the burning of pumping out reps, that causes momentary failure and ends the set.
 
Use Slow Movements

I believe that many weight training sets should be done with extremely slow speed of movement.  Slow movements minimize momentum and require a more sustained contraction.  This is much more effective than accelerating the weight initially, which builds up momentum that allows the muscle to relax.  Slow, steady contractions increase strength much more effectively than the contract-relax-contract-relax rhythm of faster movements which feature built-in moments of relaxation due to momentum.
 
Lower velocity strength training provides the best endurance benefit, producing greater strength gains in the slow twitch muscle fibers (Sale, 1981, Østerås, 2002).  Slow twitch muscle fibers produce work at a lower energy cost than fast twitch fibers.  
 
I heavily (pardon the pun) rely on a style of strength training using repetitions with about an eight second lifting phase and a four second lowering phase, with no pauses at any time during the set.  This is an extreme style which requires tremendous discipline and concentration, but I have found it to be extremely safe, extremely time-efficient, and extremely effective.  Great care should be taken to accelerate the weight very deliberately at the beginning of each repetition and to avoid setting the weight down between repetitions.  Anything that would cause the working muscle to relax, even for a split-second, should be avoided.  The idea of this style of weight training is to completely avoid buildup of momentum and to maintain constant muscular contraction form the beginning of the set to the end.
 
Selecting the correct weight to be used is critical.  Regardless of the style of lifting, each set should last between forty and eighty seconds.  With slow movements this will not produce a large number of repetitions, but duration of contraction is key, not number of repetitions.  When the athlete becomes strong enough that eighty seconds of continuous contraction are possible, they need to increase the weight by about five percent.  This will reduce the set duration back toward forty seconds and you duration will gradually be built back up.
 
With road cyclists, who must be able to sprint, I will use faster movements later in the base periods.  I do so very cautiously and only after the athlete already has an excellent base (usually several years) of heavy, slow-speed weight training.
 
One of the benefits of strength training is injury resistance, but the risk of developing injuries in the weight room is very real also.  Injuries are caused by power, force times speed.  Strength in the muscles is developed by requiring forceful contractions from the muscles.  By keeping speed of movement very slow, an athlete can use very heavy weights while keeping the power quotient fairly low (reducing injury risk.  When an athlete is fearful of using heavy weights I frequently will take a 25 pound barbell plate and gently set it on my foot.  I‚ll ask, „Does that hurt?‰  Obviously it does not.  Then I‚ll hold a 2∏ pound plate out at shoulder height and ask the client to stick out their foot under it so I can drop the plate on it.  When they look at me like I‚m crazy, I remind them that the plate on my foot is ten times heavier.  What is the difference?  Obviously, the plate that weighs one-tenth as much will be moving much faster and carry much more power.  
 
Try using very heavy weights with extremely slow movements with all your athletes, especially during the first half of their weight training each year.  You will find amazing results.  
 
Faster movements are excellent for developing neural adaptations, which will help with short term power.  Be extremely conservative when using faster movements and never include these early in each season‚s weight training.
 
Include serious strength training in almost all of your athletes winter regimens.  Plan the progression and, when in doubt, be conservative and consistent.
 
Exercises

I often recommend that an athlete use a single set of a single exercise for each major muscle group.  Avoid doing too many sets or redundant exercises, as increasing the volume of the workout reduces the intensity, resulting in less effective stimulation.  Extra work will delay recovery and may unnecessarily interfere with swim, bike, and run workouts.
 
I recommend the following exercises using machines that can be found in most fitness centers:
 
1. Leg Press:  Place feet at the very top of the platform, shoulder-width or narrower.  Set seat so that knee angle is slightly less than 90 degrees and hip angle is significantly below 90 degrees.  Press the platform out slowly until knees are almost straight.  Lower slowly until knees are bent to a 90 degree angle and repeat.  This exercise works the quadriceps muscles on the front of the thigh and the gluteus maximus muscles of the buttocks.  Placing the feet too low on the platform puts most of the stress on the quadriceps and minimizes stress on the glutes.
 
2a. Seated Leg Curl: Sit on the machine with legs between the two roller pads.  Slowly and deliberately pull the heels back toward the buttocks by bending the knees.  Keep the toes pulled up toward the knees and avoid pointing the toes.  This exercise works the hamstring muscles on the back of the thigh.
 
2b. Lying Leg Curl: Lie face down on machine with knees lined up with machine's axis of rotation and heels hooked under the roller pads.  Slowly bend your knees until your heels come up and touch your butt.  Your hips may rise slightly off the machine; don't try to keep them all the way down.  During the entire set, keep your toes pulled up toward your knees - don't point your toes or your calf muscles will assist and may fatigue before the target muscles have been effectively worked.  This exercise works the hamstrings on the back of the thigh.
 
3. Leg Extension:  Sit with your knees lined up with the machine's axis of rotation and your feet hooked under the roller pads.  Slowly straighten your legs until they are completely straight. Make sure to achieve a full 180 degree angle - the last few degrees are very important.  Lower the weight stack until your knees are bent to a 90 degree angle, without setting the weight down, and repeat.
 
4a. Calf Raise :  Sit on a leg press machine with only the balls of your feet on the platform.  Straighten your legs and lock out the knees (unless you feel pain or have a history of knee problems).  Keeping the knees straight, lower the weight by dropping your heels.  You should feel a deep stretch in the calves.  Slowly point your toes, trying to shift your weight onto the big toe of each foot.  Don't let your feet roll to the outside.
 
4b. 1-Legged Standing Calf Raise: Stand on one foot on the edge of a stair with the ball of your foot on the stair and your arch and heel off the stair.  Drop your heel to get a full stretch of the calf muscles, then slowly push up on to your toes and extend your ankle.  As you push up, try to roll your weight on to the big toe as much as possible.

5a. Seated Row: Sit in front of a low pulley with your feet braced against the machine.  Grip the handle with your palms facing each other.  Keeping the elbows straight, slowly pull the shoulders back (squeeze your shoulder blades together and stick your chest out) without raising them toward your ears.  Only when your shoulders are pulled all the way back, slowly bend your elbows and pull back until the elbows are well behind the torso.  Lower the weight until the arms and shoulders are fully extended and repeat.

5b. Lat Pull: Using a palms-away grip about six inches wider than shoulder width, slowly pull the bar down to the base of your neck where it meets the upper chest.  Allow the bar to slowly rise back to the starting position and repeat for the designated number of repetitions.

6. Bench Press:  Lie on your back with the bar lined up with your shoulders.  Grip the bar about 6" wider than shoulder width.  Lower the bar to your chest and slowly press upward.  Slowly lower and repeat.

7a. Lateral Raise:  On a machine, place your elbows inside the pads.  Or, stand with dumbbells hanging at your sides.  Slowly raise your arms out to your sides.  Make sure to rotate your arms from the shoulders, instead of "shrugging" the shoulders up toward the ears.  This exercise works the outside of the shoulder.
 
7b. Shoulder Press:  Grip a barbell using a palms-away grip about four inches wider than shoulder width.  Slowly push the barbell upward until arms are fully extended overhead.  Slowly lower the bar to your upper chest and repeat.

8a. Low Back Machine:  Sit in the machine with your hips pressed all the way back against the lower pad.  Put both belts across your hips and legs and tighten as much as possible.  Cross your arms on your chest and press back slowly against the upper pad with your upper back and shoulders until you feel a stopper.  Lower the weight, rounding your back as you come forward.  If you cannot hit the stopper, you are using too much weight.  Make sure that the belts are tight enough that your hips cannot move forward or up during the movement.
8b. Dead Lift: Stand with a barbell directly in front of you.  Grip the bar at shoulder width.  Stand up, keeping your arms straight and lifting the bar to thigh level.  Slowly lower the weight to the floor and repeat.
9a. Leg Lifts:  Lie on your back with your arms on the floor at your sides.  Very slowly raise your legs and bring your knees in to your chest, bending the knees as you lift.  At the end of the movement, concentrate on rotating your pelvis upward as much as possible.  During the entire movement, concentrate on squeezing the abdominal muscles, not just completing the movement.
9b. Crunches:  Lie on your back and cross your arms on your chest.  Very slowly roll your shoulders forward and upward while keeping your lower back in contact with the floor.  Pause at the top and return.  As with the leg-lifts, concentrate on squeezing the abdominal muscles, not just completing the movement.

9c. Sit-Ups with Twist:  Lay on your back on the floor.  Put your feet under the edge of a couch or have a friend hold them down.  Lock your fingers behind your head.  Bring your right elbow up to your left knee, go back down, and bring your left elbow up to your right knee.  Repeat.  Additional resistance can be created by holding a weight behind your head or using an incline board.


10a. Shoulder Internal Rotation: (Triathletes) Attach a stretch-cord to a doorknob or other stationary object at about waist height.  Stand far enough away to create optimal resistance.
 Face 90 degrees away from the doorknob, so that it is directly to your right.  Hold the stretch-cord in your right hand with your elbow tucked firmly against your side and bent at 90 degrees so that the forearm is horizontal and pointing toward the doorknob.  Maintaining a 90 degree elbow angle, slowly rotate the upper arm, moving the hand away from the doorknob in an arc.  Make sure to keep the elbow locked against your side and move only the forearm and hand.  Repeat slowly for one minute.  Resistance should be great enough that completing the final repetition is very difficult.  Repeat with the left arm.



10b. Shoulder Internal Rotation:  (Triathletes) Grip a lat bar so that you have a 90-degree bend at both the elbow and shoulder.  Begin with your upper arms horizontal and your lower arms vertical (pointing up).  Rotate your hand and the bar forward until your lower arms are pointing down.  Your elbows should remain in place, with the upper arm only rotating.  This works small, weak muscles, so start very light.



11. Shoulder External Rotation: (Triathletes) Attach a stretch-cord to a doorknob or other stationary object at about waist height.  Stand far enough away to create optimal resistance.  Face 90 degrees away from the doorknob, so that it is directly to your left.  Hold the stretch-cord in your right hand with your elbow tucked firmly against your side and bent at 90 degrees so that the forearm is horizontal and pointing toward the doorknob.  Maintaining a 90 degree elbow angle, slowly rotate the upper arm, moving the hand away from the doorknob in an arc.  Make sure to keep the elbow locked against your side and move only the forearm and hand.  Repeat slowly for one minute.  Resistance should be great enough that completing the final repetition is very difficult.


12. Hip Flexors:  Use an ankle strap and a low pulley machine to work the hip flexors.  Face away from the machine and lean forward on a chair or something similar for stability.  Begin the exercise with the strap on your right ankle and with the right leg fully extended behind you.  Slowly drive the right knee forward, allowing the knee to bend.  Ideally the range of motion at the hip will vary from about 45 degrees behind you to 45 degrees in front of you.  Allow the leg to stretch out behind you again and repeat.  Work this muscle particularly hard as it is important in swimming, cycling, and running.
 
References

Bárány, M. (1967). ATPase activity of myosin correlated with speed of muscle shortening.  Journal of General Physiology, 50, 197 ˆ 218.
 
Bell, G.J., Syrotuik, D., Martin, T.P., Burnham, R., & Quinney, H.A. (1998).  Effect  of current strength and endurance training on skeletal muscle properties and hormone concentrations in humans.  European Journal of Applied Physiology, 81(5), 418 ˆ 427.
 
Blazevich, A. J., & Jenkins, D. G. (2002).  Effect of the movement
           speed of resistance training exercises on sprint and strength performance in concurrently training elite junior sprinters.  Journal of Sports Sciences, 20 (12), 981.
 
Dudley, G. A., & Djamil, R. (1985).  Incompatibility of endurance-and strength-training modes of exercise.  Journal of Applied Physiology, 59 (5), 1446 - 1451.
 
Henriksson, J. & Tesch, P. (1999).  Current knowledge on muscle training: endurance and strength yield complementary effects.  Lakartidningen, 96 (1-2), 56 ˆ 60.
 
Hickson, R. C., Dvorak, B. A., Gorostiaga, E. M., Kurowski, T. T., & Foster, C. (1988).  Potential for strength and endurance training to amplify endurance performance.  Journal of Applied Physiology, 65 (5), 2285 - 2290.
 

Nelson, A. G., Arnall, D. A., Loy, S. F., Silvester, L. J., & Conlee, R. K. (1990).  Consequences of combining strength and endurance training regimens.  Physical Therapy, 70 (5), 287 ˆ 288.
 
Østerås, H., Helgerud, J., & Hoff, J. (2002).  Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans.  European Journal of Applied Physiology, 88 (3), 255 - 263.


Paavolainen, L., Häkkinen, K., Hämäläinen, I., Nummela, A., Heikki, R. (1999).  Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power.  Journal of Applied Physiology, 86 (5), 1527 ˆ 1533.
 
Petrofsky, J. S., & Laymon, M. (2004).  The effect of previous weight training and concurrent weight training on endurance for functional electrical stimulation cycle ergometry.  European Journal of Applied Physiology,91, 392 ˆ 398.

Sale D., & MacDougall, D. (1981).  Specificity in strength training: a review for the coach and athlete.  Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Science, 6 (2), 87 ˆ 92.
 
Tanaka, H., & Swensen, T. (1998).  Impact of resistance training on endurance performance.  A new form of cross-training?  Sports Medicine, 25 (3), 191 - 200.

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